6 Simple Ways to Lose Belly Fat, Based on Science

Overweight does not necessarily equal unhealthy.

There are actually plenty of overweight people who are in excellent health .

Conversely, many normal weight people have the metabolic problems associated with obesity .

That’s because the fat under the skin is actually not that big of a problem (at least not from a health standpoint, it’s more of a cosmetic problem).

It’s the fat in the abdominal cavity, the belly fat, that causes the biggest issues .

If you have a lot of excess fat around your waistline, even if you’re not very heavy, then you should take some steps to get rid of it.

Belly fat is usually estimated by measuring the circumference around your waist. This can easily be done at home with a simple tape measure.

Anything above 40 inches (102 cm) in men and 35 inches (88 cm) in women, is known as abdominal obesity.

There are actually a few proven strategies that have been shown to target the fat in the belly area more than other areas of the body.

Here are 6 evidence-based ways to lose belly fat.

1. Don’t eat sugar and avoid sugar-sweetened drinks

Added sugar is very unhealthy.

Studies show that it has uniquely harmful effects on metabolic health .

Sugar is half glucose, half fructose, and fructose can only be metabolized by the liver in any significant amount .

When you eat a lot of refined sugar, the liver gets overloaded with fructose, and is forced to turn it all into fat .

Numerous studies have shown that excess sugar, mostly due to the large amounts of fructose, can lead to increased accumulation of fat in the belly .

Some believe that this is the primary mechanism behind sugar’s harmful effects on health. It increases belly fat and liver fat, which leads to insulin resistance and a host of metabolic problems .

Liquid sugar is even worse in this regard. Liquid calories don’t get “registered” by the brain in the same way as solid calories, so when you drink sugar-sweetened beverages, you end up eating more total calories .

Studies show that sugar-sweetened beverages are linked to a 60% increased risk of obesity in children, per each daily serving .

Make a decision to minimize the amount of sugar in your diet, and consider completely eliminating sugary drinks.

This includes sugar-sweetened beverages, fruit juices and various high-sugar sports drinks.

Keep in mind that none of this applies to whole fruit, which are extremely healthy and have plenty of fiber that mitigates the negative effects of fructose.

The amount of fructose you get from fruit is negligible compared to what you get from a diet high in refined sugar.

If you want to cut back on refined sugar, then you must start reading labels. Even foods marketed as health foods can contain huge amounts of sugar.

Bottom Line: Excess sugar consumption may be the primary driver of belly fat accumulation, especially sugary beverages like soft drinks.

2. Eating more protein is a great long-term strategy to reduce belly fat

Protein is the most important macronutrient when it comes to losing weight.

It has been shown to reduce cravings by 60%, boost metabolism by 80-100 calories per day and help you eat up to 441 fewer calories per day .

If weight loss is your goal, then adding protein is perhaps the single most effective change you can do to your diet.

Not only will it help you lose, it can also help you avoid re-gaining weight if you ever decide to abandon your weight loss efforts .

There is also some evidence that protein is particularly effective against belly fat.

One study showed that the amount and quality of protein consumed was inversely related to fat in the belly. That is, people who ate more and better protein had much less belly fat .

Another study in Denmark showed that protein was linked to significantly reduced risk of belly fat gain over a period of 5 years .

This study also showed that refined carbs and oils were linked to increased amounts of belly fat, but fruits and vegetables linked to reduced amounts.

Many of the studies showing protein to be effective had protein at 25-30% of calories. That’s what you should aim for.

So make an effort to increase your intake of high-protein foods such as whole eggs, fish, seafood, legumes, nuts, meat, dairy products and some whole grains. These are the best protein sources in the diet.

If you struggle with getting enough protein in your diet, then a quality protein supplement (like whey protein) is a healthy and convenient way to boost your total intake.

If you’re a vegetarian or vegan, then check out this article on how to increase your protein intake.

Bonus tip: Consider cooking your foods in coconut oil. Some studies have shown that 30 mL (about 2 tablespoons) of coconut oil per day reduces belly fat slightly.

Bottom Line: Eating enough protein is a very effective way to lose weight. Some studies suggest that protein is particularly effective against belly fat accumulation.

3. Cut carbs from your diet

Carb restriction is a very effective way to lose fat.

This is supported by numerous studies. When people cut carbs, their appetite goes down and they lose weight.

Over 20 randomized controlled trials have now shown that low-carb diets lead to 2-3 times more weight loss than low-fat diets .

This is true even when the low-carb groups are allowed to eat as much as they want, while the low-fat groups are calorie restricted and hungry.

Low-carb diets also lead to quick reductions in water weight, which gives people near instant results. A major difference on the scale is often seen within a few days.

There are also studies comparing low-carb and low-fat diets, showing that low-carb diets specifically target the fat in the belly, and around the organs and liver .

What this means is that a particularly high proportion of the fat lost on a low-carb diet is the dangerous and disease promoting abdominal fat.

Just avoiding the refined carbs (white breads, pastas, etc) should be sufficient, especially if you keep your protein high.

However, if you need to lose weight fast, then consider dropping your carbs down to 50 grams per day. This will put your body into ketosis, killing your appetite and making your body start burning primarily fats for fuel.

Of course, low-carb diets have many other health benefits besides just weight loss. They can have life-saving effects in type 2 diabetics, for example .

Breast cancer second most common for American women

Other than skin cancer, breast cancer is the most common cancer in American women, according to the Office on Women's Health at the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Every woman has a chance of getting breast cancer, with about one in eight being diagnosed with breast cancer at some point in her life. This risk was about one in 11 in 1975, according to the Office on Women's Health.

The U.S. National Cancer Institute at the National Institutes of Healthestimates 232,340 new cases of breast cancer will be diagnosed in U.S. women in 2013. This sounds scary, but many women with breast cancer do survive it. With screening including mammograms, doctors often can find cancer early. Treatment has the best chance of success when found early, according to Office on Women's Health.

Breast cancer begins in breast tissue, where cancer cells may form a mass, or tumor; yet not all tumors are cancerous. These cancer cells also may invade nearby tissue and spread to lymph nodes and other parts of the body. With screening, breast cancer can be found before it spreads.

There are a number of types of breast cancer; however, two of the main categories are noninvasive and invasive.

Noninvasive (in situ) breast cancer refers to cancer in which the cells have remained within their place of origin - they have not spread to other areas of the breast. If the cancer has spread, it is termed invasive and is diagnosed as Stage I, II, III or IV.

"There are aggressive and non-aggressive types of breast cancer. Breast cancers that feed off estrogen are non-aggressive, are called estrogen-positive, and have a lower growth rate and are more easily treated. Estrogen-negative breast cancers do not live off estrogen, are more aggressive and create more challenges for treatments," said Julie Nangia, MD, assistant professor in the Lester and Sue Smith Breast Center at Baylor College of Medicine.

On Jan. 1, 2009, in the U.S. there were approximately 2,747,459 women alive who had a history of breast cancer, according to the National Cancer Institute.

Older women, 50 percent, are more likely to be diagnosed with breast cancer than younger women, with age being one of the contributing factors of the disease.

"Women who have had complete hysterectomies before the age of 40 have a lower incident rate of estrogen-positive breast cancer than those who had hysterectomies after 40 or not (at all). Women who have had hysterectomies have a lower estrogen level than those who have not, and those who had hysterectomies at a younger age have a lower estrogen level moving into their 60s," Nangia said.

Prevention of estrogen-positive breast cancer includes exercise, and to maintain a healthy weight. Obesity and excess fat increases estrogen, which alcohol does as well. Therefore, limiting alcohol consumption to no more than three drinks a week is suggested, according to Nangia.

According to the National Cancer Institute, from 2005-2009, the median age for a breast cancer diagnosis was 61.

Diagnoses are: Approximately 0.0 percent less than age 20; 1.8 percent between 20 and 34; 9.9 percent between 35 and 44; 22.5 percent between 45 and 54; 24.8 percent between 55 and 64; 20.2 percent between 65 and 74; 15.1 percent between 75 and 84; and 5.7 percent at 85-plus years. Regarding cases of breast cancer and ethnicity, caucasian women have the highest rate of 127.4 per 100,000, with African-Americans close behind at 121.4 per 100,000. Asian/Pacific islanders follow at 91.8, Hispanics at 90.8 and Native Americans at 77.1.

Mammography has led to a dramatic increase in the incidence of ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS). The diagnosis was relatively rare before the early 1980s and the widespread use of mammography. Today, approximately one woman is diagnosed with DCIS for every four women diagnosed with invasive breast cancer.

Is Carrageenan Harmful and Should You Avoid It?

Carrageenan is a controversial ingredient that’s found in a wide variety of products.

It’s used as an additive in many foods, including ones marketed as organic or healthy, such as almond milk and yogurt.

While some claim that carrageenan causes everything from cancer to diabetes, the FDA considers it safe for consumption.

So is carrageenan actually bad for you? This article examines the evidence.

What Is Carrageenan?

Carrageenan is a food additive that’s extracted from Chondrus crispus, a type of edible, red seaweed.

Food manufacturers use it to help thicken and stabilize foods, resulting in improved texture and an extended shelf life.

There are two types of carrageenan — degraded and undegraded — that have very different chemical structures.

The main difference between the two is that the degraded type is processed in an acidic solution, while the undegraded type is not.

Degraded carrageenan, which is also known as “poligeenan,” is not used in food. It’s often used in studies to cause inflammation and has been classified as “possibly carcinogenic” by the World Health Organization .

However, undegraded carrageenan is often used as an additive in foods.

There has been a lot of concern about its potential health effects on everything from insulin resistance to inflammation.

Nevertheless, despite persistent controversy and calls to ban it, it has been granted GRAS (Generally Recognized As Safe) status since 1959 .

Summary: Carrageenan is an additive that’s used to thicken and stabilize foods. Undegraded carrageenan is the form used by food manufacturers, and it’s generally recognized as safe by the FDA.

Where Is Carrageenan Found?

Carrageenan is found in many food products. Common sources include :

• Sauces
• Ice cream
• Yogurt
• Cottage cheese
• Tofu
• Infant formula
• Dairy alternatives (almond, soy and coconut milk)
• Processed meats
• Frosting base mix
• Nutritional supplements
• Prepared meals
• Juice
• Buttermilk
• Coffee creamer
• Salad dressing
• Chocolate

The amounts found in these foods can range from about 0.01% per 3.5 ounces (100 grams) in ice cream to 4% in frosting base mix .

Even foods labeled “organic” can still contain carrageenan. While the National Organic Standards Board recently voted to remove carrageenan from the list of approved ingredients in organic products, the USDA will have the final say.

In addition to food, carrageenan is present in several household products. It can be found in toothpaste, shampoo and even shoe polish .

In medicine, it has been used as a laxative and treatment for stomach ulcers (.

Summary: Carrageenan can be found in a wide variety of everyday foods, household products and medications.

Carrageenan May Cause Inflammation

In times of injury or illness, inflammation is a normal response that’s triggered by your immune system as a way to fight off foreign invaders .

Chronic inflammation, on the other hand, can lead to the development of chronic disease in the long term .

Some evidence suggests that carrageenan can trigger inflammation by increasing the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines, a type of immune cell that regulates inflammation .

One test-tube study used it to treat intestinal cells and reported an increase in inflammatory markers and inflammation .

Another study had similar findings, showing that it set off an immune response in human colon cells .

However, when carrageenan is consumed as a food additive, it may not have significant inflammatory effects.

A 2014 review noted that it can have an effect on the immune system when administered intravenously, but not when consumed in the diet .

Summary: While some studies have shown that carrageenan can trigger inflammation, it’s likely that the findings don’t apply to dietary intake.

It Could Negatively Affect Digestive Health

Some studies show that carrageenan may cause negative changes in your digestive system.

One animal study showed that it can promote the growth of abnormal tube-like glands in the colon, which are known as aberrant crypt foci.

The formation of these glands is one of the earliest changes leading to the development of colon cancer .

Another animal study analyzed the effects of a diet consisting of 5% carrageenan in guinea pigs, rabbits, rats, squirrel monkeys, ferrets and hamsters.

The researchers found that administering carrageenan over 3–5 weeks caused intestinal ulcers in guinea pigs and rabbits, but not in the other species .

However, other studies have shown that the amount of carrageenan found in the typical diet does not cause intestinal ulcers. When consumed in moderate amounts (under 5% of total diet), it has not been shown to cause adverse effects .

More research is needed to determine the effects of carrageenan in humans, as well as how intravenous carrageenan differs from the food-grade variety.

Overall, it seems that moderate amounts in the diet are generally safe.

Summary: Some studies have shown that carrageenan can cause intestinal ulcers and promote the growth of abnormal cells in the colon. These effects are likely limited to high doses in the diet.

It May Promote Cancer Development

While degraded carrageenan is classified as “possibly carcinogenic,” the undegraded, food-grade variety is not.

Nevertheless, some research has suggested that even undegraded carrageenan can accelerate the development of cancer, especially when paired with a known carcinogen.

In one animal study, rats were fed either a diet consisting of 15% undegraded carrageenan or no carrageenan. They were also given a type of carcinogen to induce colon cancer.

The group fed carrageenan had a higher rate of tumors than the control group, suggesting that carrageenan can promote the formation of cancer cells .

Another study showed similar findings. Rats were given a diet consisting of 6% carrageenan over 24 weeks and exposed to a carcinogen. Compared to the control group, the rats receiving carrageenan had a 35% increase in colorectal tumors .

Dietary carrageenan has also been shown to increase the production of thymidine kinase, an enzyme that is used as a marker for colon cancer.

However, other studies have found no relationship between carrageenan and the development of cancer.

For example, one study in rats fed carrageenan for a 90-day period found no signs of lesions in the digestive tract .

So while carrageenan itself could possibly enhance the progression of cancer, it’s likely only in the presence of other carcinogens and when consumed in high amounts.

Summary: Several studies have shown that carrageenan can accelerate cancer formation in the presence of known carcinogens. However, current evidence on this is limited to animal studies.

Carrageenan Could Cause Insulin Resistance

Your body breaks down foods into glucose to be used as energy. It then secretes insulin, the hormone that’s responsible for distributing glucose to your cells.

Insulin resistance develops when your body can’t use insulin as effectively, causing a build-up of glucose and insulin in your blood.

Over time, this can lead to problems like diabetes.

Some studies show that carrageenan could contribute to insulin resistance and glucose intolerance.

In one study, rats were given drinking water containing carrageenan and then tested for glucose tolerance. The researchers found that insulin and glucose levels were significantly higher in the carrageenan group than the control group .

Another study gave mice either a carrageenan-containing diet, a high-fat diet or a combination of both for one year.

Mice that had been treated with carrageenan had more severe glucose intolerance than the high-fat diet alone. The high-fat, carrageenan diet had a significant effect on blood sugar levels, glucose tolerance and even lipid levels .

Research is still lacking when it comes to the effect of carrageenan on insulin levels in humans, so it’s unclear just how applicable the results of these studies are.

A healthy diet paired with exercise and a moderate intake of processed foods that contain carrageenan is the best way to prevent insulin resistance and keep blood sugar levels steady.

Summary: Some animal studies have found that carrageenan could cause insulin resistance and glucose intolerance, especially when paired with a high-fat diet.

The Bottom Line

Studies show that carrageenan can cause some negative health effects.

However, most of the studies used much higher amounts than what’s seen in the typical diet and were test-tube or animal studies.

Therefore, it’s unclear how the effects might translate to humans.

If you’re consuming carrageenan in moderation, there’s no need to worry. Amounts comprising under 5% of your diet are unlikely to have significant health effects .

But if you want to err on the side of caution and limit your intake, start at the grocery store. Don’t just assume that products marked as “organic” or “healthy” are carrageenan-free, as these are often some of the most common sources.

Instead, try reading the ingredient lists when grocery shopping and use this handy shopping guide to find brands that don’t use carrageenan.

You can also reduce your intake of processed foods. Not only will this reduce your intake of carrageenan — it will also improve your diet overall.

HIV and diarrhea: Causes, treatment, and remedies

Diarrhea is a term used to describe an increase in the weight, volume, and frequency of bowel movements, which are typically loose and watery.

This condition develops when there are problems with the body's normal processes of digesting and absorbing food. It can sometimes be the body's way of getting rid of unwanted or unnecessary materials in the gut.

In most cases, diarrhea goes away on its own in a few days, but for people with HIV, diarrhea can become more chronic, severe, and threatening to health.

Contents of this article:

1. What is the connection between diarrhea and HIV?
2. Treatment and prevention
3. Other gastrointestinal symptoms of HIV

What is the connection between diarrhea and HIV?

The intestine plays a very significant role in the healthy functioning of the human immune system. According to researchers, it is one of the organs of the immune system that is most damaged by HIV infection.

A HIV infection can damage the intestine, which may lead to chronic and severe diarrhea.

The intestine is home to more than half of the body's antibody-producing cells. HIV attacks these cells, which reduces the intestine's ability to function.

The intestine is also home to the so-called "healthy" bacteria, or gut flora, which promote effective digestion and fight infection. However, antibiotics taken to address other HIV-related problems may attack these "healthy" bacteria, and further interfere with the intestine's ability to work properly.

For people with HIV, diarrhea can also be a symptom of opportunistic infections, diseases that develop when the immune system is compromised. In addition, several noninfectious factors, such as irritable bowel syndrome or reactions to medications, can cause diarrhea for patients with HIV.

The connection between HIV and diarrhea is most strongly pronounced in the developing world, where authorities estimate that almost everyone who has HIV-positive will develop diarrhea at some point.

When might diarrhea occur and how long does it last?

For people with HIV, diarrhea can be caused by multiple factors. Each case should be reviewed individually, as causes can vary depending on:

• symptoms
• immune system health
• eating habits
• allergies
• family history
• exposure to illness

People with HIV are more susceptible to any of the things that can cause diarrhea. This is due to the way HIV suppresses the immune system and how the infection wears on the body.

In addition, protease inhibitors (PIs), one type of vital medication someone with HIV can take, may cause gastrointestinal distress. However, people with HIV seem to have an easier time handling more recently introduced PIs, such as Prezista, Prezcobix, Reyataz, or Evotaz.

Potential causes for HIV diarrhea include:

• parasites, such as cryptosporidium
• side effects of medications used to treat HIV infection
• loss of "healthy" bacteria, due to use of antibiotics
• inflammatory bowel syndrome, which affects 10-20 percent of adults in America
• inflammatory bowel diseases, such as ulcerative colitis or Crohn's disease
• lactose intolerance, or an inability to digest milk or milk products
• problems with the pancreas, such as acute or chronic pancreatitis
• stress and anxiety
• a diet too full of greasy, rich, spicy, and fatty foods

Viruses can also cause diarrhea. Common viruses, such as the Norwalk virus, can cause diarrhea in people with HIV as well as those with healthy immune systems. Rarer viruses, such as cytomegalovirus or CMV, are most often seen in people with compromised immune systems.

Triggers

A number of different foods, supplements, and medications may prompt bouts of diarrhea, or make these episodes worse. The following should be avoided:

• foods high in fat, such as chips and fried foods
• dried fruit, such as prunes
• fresh fruit and fruit juices
• alcohol
• caffeine
• nuts and nut butters
• high-fiber foods, such as dried beans and vegetables
• monosodium glutamate
• artificial sweetener and sugar-free gums or mints

Treatment and prevention

In people with HIV, diarrhea has the potential to be more than a minor inconvenience. It can last for a few days, or much longer.

For individuals with HIV, diarrhea lasting more than a few days is a potential cause for concern, and should be evaluated by a doctor.

There are several classifications of diarrhea, with chronic diarrhea being the most serious. Chronic diarrhea is generally diagnosed when an individual has had more than four watery bowel movements per day for more than 4 weeks. Chronic diarrhea can lead to dehydration, malnutrition, and wasting.

If diarrhea lasts for more than a few days for people with HIV, a healthcare professional should be consulted.

For all people, including those who have HIV, diarrhea can be a sign that the body has something in its digestive tract that it needs to get rid of. Doctors recommend that people do not immediately reach for an antidiarrheal medication. Instead, they should talk to their doctor to determine a cause for the condition before treating it.

A doctor may run tests on the person's blood, stool samples, and immune system to identify the source of the problem. If these tests are inconclusive, and the condition is severe, the doctor may then refer the person for more involved tests.

These tests may include an endoscopy or colonoscopy, which use medical imaging to study the digestive tract.

After evaluating each case individually, physicians may recommend an over-the-counter medication (OTC), such as loperamide (Imodium). Other helpful over-the-counter products include Pepto-Bismol (Bismuth subsalicylate) and Kaopectate (attapulgite).

A doctor may also prescribe medications, dependent on the type of diarrhea an individual has.

There may be potential for drug-drug interactions even with over-the-counter medications, so people should always check with their doctor or a pharmacist before starting any new medication.

People who are taking medication to control their HIV should not stop taking it in order to treat diarrhea. They should speak to their doctor to discuss an appropriate way of addressing their symptoms.

For many people with HIV, diarrhea can be effectively managed with diet. They can do this by avoiding foods that may trigger diarrhea and by eating foods that will helpful for people with HIV.

Staying properly hydrated is very important, so individuals with HIV should drink lots of liquids. Healthful, clear liquids such as water are best, but ginger ale and peppermint or ginger tea are also good.

Sports drinks contain electrolytes so are also good to drink, but people should be wary of the sugar content of sports drinks as too much sugar can lead to diarrhea.

Although people with diarrhea need to keep their fluid intake up to prevent dehydration, they should try to drink most of these beverages between meals. Doing so avoids speeding the movement of food through the intestine.

Eating smaller, more frequent meals can also help with diarrhea, especially when these meals incorporate the following:

• oral rehydration beverages, such as Pedialyte
• yogurt, especially brands containing "live cultures" of acidophilus
• oatmeal, or cream of wheat
• bananas
• plain pasta or noodles
• boiled eggs
• white toast or crackers
• boiled or mashed potatoes
• applesauce

Additionally, some supplements can be helpful for people with HIV who are experiencing diarrhea. These include:

• amino acid L-glutamine
• probiotics and acidophilus capsules
• soluble fiber products, such as Metamucil and other psyllium-based products

While products such as Metamucil are often used to treat constipation, they can also help with diarrhea. They absorb water and add bulk to waste moving through the intestine, and this can help reduce the frequency of bowel movements.

Possible complications

To protect health, people experiencing diarrhea should replenish their fluids and nutrients with a healthful, simple diet and lots of clear fluids.

However, people with diarrhea can lose up to 1 gallon of water a day. This loss of fluid may not only lead to dehydration, but it can sap the body of electrolytes, minerals such as sodium and potassium, and other important nutrients.

Dehydration is one of the more common complications of diarrhea in people with HIV. While adults generally need eight 8-ounce glasses of fluids each day, authorities say that in severe cases of diarrhea people should drink twice that much.

When people with HIV lose 10 percent or more of their body weight without trying, they are diagnosed with wasting. Wasting is a frequent and serious complication for people with HIV. Diarrhea is one of the many factors which contributes to the development of this life-threatening syndrome.

Other gastrointestinal symptoms of HIV

Gastrointestinal (GI) problems are one of the main features of living with HIV. Close to half of the people who are HIV positive and who seek medical care do so because of problems with the GI tract. Almost everyone with HIV develops such problems eventually.

Along with HIV diarrhea, other GI problems commonly experienced by people with HIV include:

• weight loss
• nausea
• ulcers in the mouth and food pipe
• bleeding in the GI tract
• cytomegalovirus or CMV, and other opportunistic infections
• stomach pain
• gastric non-Hodgkins lymphoma
• Kaposi's sarcoma

Stomach pain and nausea may be common gastrointestinal problems for people with HIV.

Fertility treatment failure may harm women's heart health

fertility therapy failure may raise the risk of poor heart health for women, according to the results of a new study published in the Canadian Medical Association Journal.

Women who do not become pregnant after fertility treatment may be at greater risk of cardiovascular events, a new study finds.

Researchers found that women who did not become pregnant after undergoing gonadotropin-based fertility therapy - treatment often used in preparation for in vitro fertilization (IVF) and other assisted reproductive technologies - were at greater risk of heart failure and stroke than those whose fertility therapy was successful.

The research team - led by Dr. Jacob Udell of the Clinical Evaluative Sciences (ICES), the Peter Munk Cardiac Centre, and Women's College Hospital in Canada - notes that previous studies have suggested a link between fertility therapy and a short-term risk of cardiovascular events.

However, the researchers say that few studies have assessed the long-term impact of fertility therapy on heart health, especially among women whose fertility treatments have been unsuccessful.

"Failure of fertility therapy may be an early indicator of future cardiovascular risk by acting as a unique cardiometabolic stress test," says the authors. "In addition, fertility therapy may lead to adverse cardiovascular events by inducing background thrombosis, activating the renin-angiotensin system or inducing vascular injury from ovarian hyperstimulation."

To investigate how fertility treatment failure affects women's long-term heart health, the researchers reviewed the data of 28,442 women of an average age of 35.

All women had undergone gonadotropin-based fertility therapy in Ontario, Canada, between April 1993 and March 2011, and they were followed until March 2015. The women had an average of three fertility treatments.

Cardiovascular event risk 19 percent higher with fertility therapy failure

A total of 9,349 of the women gave birth within a year of undergoing fertility treatment. For the remaining women, fertility therapy was unsuccessful.

Over an average 8.4 years of follow-up, 2,686 cardiovascular events were identified.

Compared with women who gave birth following fertility therapy, women who did not become pregnant after fertility treatment were found to have a 19 percent greater risk of cardiovascular events, particularly stroke and heart failure.

However, the team points out that the absolute risk of cardiovascular events was modest for women who did not become pregnant after fertility therapy, at 10 cardiovascular events per 1,000 women over 10 years.

In comparison, there were 6 cardiovascular events per 1,000 women over 10 years for those who gave birth after fertility therapy.

Still, the researchers say that their findings indicate that fertility therapy might be a risk factor for cardiovascular disease among women, and this association warrants further investigation.

Furthermore, the team believes that women who have undergone fertility therapy should consider how the treatment might have impacted their heart health.

"We don't want to alarm women who undergo fertility therapy; we are instead suggesting that as women age, they should stay mindful of their health and remind their physician about any fertility therapy years earlier. It can be an opportunity for their doctor to review other risk factors for heart disease and discuss ways to protect against future cardiac problems."

Study co-author Dr. Donald Redelmeier, ICES

The researchers warn that there are some limitations to their study. For example, it did not include less invasive forms of fertility treatment.

Additionally, data were unavailable for a number of other factors that might have impacted women's heart health, such as blood pressure and cholesterol levels.

Learn how shift work and heavy lifting might reduce women's fertility.